Introduction 1.

Four rules for interpreting Scripture correctly

1. The literal sense.

2. Literary form.

3. Intended scope.

4. Rationalizations

We must know what the human author wanted to say before we can come to any conclusions as to what God is telling us.

In many texts we have to discern the teaching by analysing the literary form the scriptural author is using.

We may not ascribe statements or assertions to a biblical author which lie outside his intended scope.

We have to distinguish substantial statements by the author from rationalizations and popular reasonings in which he expresses his own human opinions.

Introduction 2.

The Formation of the Synoptic Gospels

To understand the Gospels correctly we need to know the way in which the Gospels came about:

from Jesus’ teaching,
through oral catechesis
and written records
to the composition of the Gospels of Matthew,
Mark,
Luke.

• Introduction to ‘Gospel’
  (name, date, inspiration, how to read the gospels, biographies, written copies, apocrypha, translations)
• Jesus Christ
  (original teacher, adaptation to social culture, growth in wisdom, prophetic teaching, images, conflicts, rabbinical style, open to women, equality for all, deferred decisions)
• Oral and written traditions
  (oral traits, mnemonic devices, memorising, Paul’s use of oral sources)
• Matthew’s Gospel
  (author, sources, structure, texts proper to Matthew, community, Jewish traits, themes of authority, Jesus’ words, Messiah, self study on authority, Ignatius of Antioch)
• Mark’s Gospel
  (author, structure, character, themes of Peter, God’s household, basic community)
• Luke’ Gospel
  (author, structure, character, hellenist milieu, themes of joy, salvation, meal, business, Jerusalem, witness, women, Mary, Luke’s portrait of Mary, discipleship, women’s ministry)

In the following sections we are looking at the roles of women in Scripture and the early Church applying the principles detailed above.

Women in Old Testament times overview

1000 BC – 30 AD

Men dominated
in society and religion

Male domination:

• the general social fact
• a genetic origin?
• an Old Testament reality
• the creation stories
• Sirach

Read also:

• “And Sarah Laughed.The Status of Women in the Old Testament”, by John Otwell
• “The status of Women in Greek, Roman and Jewish Society”, by Elisabeth M. Tetlow, in ‘Women and Ministry in the New Testament‘
• “Culture, Leadership and Symbolism in the Old Testament” by Carroll Stuhlmueller, C.P. in ‘Women and Priesthood: Future Directions‘
• “Mother in Israel”: A Familiar Story Reconsidered by J. Cheryl Exum in ‘Feminist Interpretation of the Bible’
• The Relevance of Scriptural Tradition by Margaret Barker, talk given in 2000
• Biblical Affirmations of Woman – Feminine Imagery of God—Biblical Period by Leonard Swidler

Regarding rabbinical teaching on women:

• Rabbinical Tradition on the Role of Women by Hayim G. Perelmuter in ‘Women and Priesthood: Future Directions‘
• “The Role of Women in Judaism”, by Jonathan Sachs, in ‘Man, Woman, and Priesthood‘
• “Gender and the Nature of the Divine”, by Judith Ochshorn, in ‘The Female Experience and the Nature of the Divine‘
• “Sex Roles and the Relation of Power to Gender”, by Judith Ochshorn, in ‘The Female Experience and the Nature of the Divine‘
• “The Relation of Gender to Participation in Cult”, by Judith Ochshorn, in ‘The Female Experience and the Nature of the Divine‘

Jesus Christ and women

28 – 30 AD

Jesus did not tackle male dominance directly.
But he established a new priesthood that includes a radical openness to women.

Women were present at the Last Supper

Read: Jesus from an Ecofeminist Perspective, by Ivonne Gebara.

Jesus Christ:

• chose twelve apostles
• adapted to male dominance as a social fact of his time
• was truly human
• grew in wisdom
• did not know everything
• left decisions to the later
  Church
• was open to women
• established a radically new priesthood through baptism in which women had equal part.

On the Last Supper:

• ‘Meals of the Community’, by Suzanne Tunc, from Des Femmes aussi Suivant Jésus, Paris 1998, pp 69-77
• ‘Bible, liturgy concur: women were there’, by Marjorie Reiley Maguire in ‘National Catholic Reporter‘, June 5, 1998
• Do This in Memory of Me by Irene McCormack in ‘Compass Theology Review’ 25 (1991) no 4, pp.33-35
• The Women (and Mary?) at Luke’s Supper by Tony Cassidy CSSR Talk given to the Ecumenical Society of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Canterbury, 29th October 2000
• Priesthood and Jesus’ Jewish Inspiration by Aaron Milavec (some extracts from “Salvation Is from the Jews” (John 4:22): Saving Grace in Judaism and Messianic Hope in Christianity, Liturgical Press, July 2007.

At the Crucifixion and the Resurrection:

• Biblical Affirmations of Woman – Positive Christian Tradition by Leonard Swidler.

General:

• “What did Jesus Really Say About ‘Women Priests?’ “ by Michael Hewitt-Gleeson
• The Word in Women’s Worlds:Four Parables by Susan Marie Praeder.

On appointing only men among the twelve apostles:

• ‘The Scriptural Argument in Ordinatio Sacerdotalis’, R. Bieringer, Bijdragen 62 (2001) pp. 129 – 142;
• ‘The twelve apostles were men – -’, I. Raming, Orientierung 56 (1992) pp.143-146.
• ‘Did Christ conform to social myth?’, J. Wijngaards, DCROWP 1986, pp. 36-46.
• ‘The Ministry of Women according to the New Testament’, E. M. Tetlow WMNT 1980, ch. 3.
• ‘The Role of Women According to Jesus and the Early Church’, R. J. Karris, WPFD 1978, pp.47-57.
• ‘The Biblical Evidence’, Ch. Evans, YWP 1978, pp. 16-29.
• Biblical Commission Report, ‘Can Women Be Priests?’
• ‘The Twelve’, E. Schüssler Fiorenza, WP 1977, pp. 114-121.
• ‘Did Jesus Exclude Women from Priesthood?’, S. M. Schneiders, WP 1977, pp.227-233.
• ‘Pro and Con: The Ordination of Women in the New Testament’, R. H. Fuller, TNTO 1976, pp. 1-11.
• ‘Christ, Revelation, and the Ordination of Women’, A. A. Vogel, TNTO 1976, pp. 42-51.
• ‘The Authority of Scripture’, P.Lakeland, CWBP 1975, pp. 31-46.
• ‘Women and Ministry’, E. Carroll, Theological Studies 36 (1975) pp. 660 – 687.
• ‘Holy Scripture’, H. van der Meer, WPCC 1973, pp. 10-45.

Women in the Early Apostolic Church

30 – 80 AD

Paul endorsed the fundamental equality in Christ of women and men.

Women took part in the Church’s apostolate.

Paul asked women to wear a veil in the assembly to forestall cultural clashes.

• the principle of equality
• women’s ministries
• women deacons
• Mary seen as role model
• the wearing of the veil

Readings:

• Would Paul not raise his eyebrows? by John Wijngaards in ‘Did Christ Rule out Women Priests?
  
• “St. Paul’s Attitude Toward Women” by John L. McKenzie in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration’
• DUBLIN, Aug 29, 2000.CWNews, New Testament texts ‘harmful’ to women.
• A “Pauline” Defense of Women’s Right to Baptize? Intertextuality and Apostolic Authority in the Acts of Paul, Stephen J.Davis.
• Women in the Acts of the Apostles, Ivoni Richter Reimer.

On Specific Pauline texts:

• “Transitory Character” . . . Only in “Disciplinary Cases of Minor Importance”? by Juliana Casey in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration’
• “Women in the Pauline Assembly: To Prophesy, But Not To Speak?” by Robert J. Karris in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration‘
• “The Divine Plan of Creation: 1Cor 11:7 and Gen 2:18-24” by Thomas L. Thompson in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration’
• “It is not Good that the ‘Mensch’ Should be Alone; I Will Make Him/Her a Helper Fit for Him/Her” (Gen 2: 18) by Walter Vogels in Êglise et Théologie, 9 (1978). (n.b. English text. The article refers to 1Cor11)
• “Is Silence Golden? Paul and Women’s Speech in Corinth” by Caroline Vander Stichele in ‘Louvain Studies’, vol.20 (1995) pp.241-253
• Paul and Sexual Identity: 1 Corinthians 11.2-16 by Timothy Radcliffe in ‘After Eve’
• Mutuality and Interdependence of Man and Woman: An Exegetical Study of 1 Cor 11, 11-12, by K.J. Mercy, Bible Bhashyam, 2000, vol.XXVI, pp.196-204

Women among the disciples of the Apostles

80 AD – 120 AD

In a reaction against Gnostics, some local Church leaders forbid women to speak in the assemblies.

• 1 Timothy 2,11-15
• 1 Corinthians 14,34-35

Read on women in the Early Christian Church:

• • “Women Leaders in the New Testament” by J. Massyngberde Ford in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration‘
  • “The Apostleship of Women in Early Christianity” by Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration‘
  • “Junia Outstanding among the Apostles” (Romans 16:7) by Bernadette Brooten in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration‘
  • “Women and the Apostolic Community” by Madeleine I. Boucher in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration‘
  • “Peter’s Pentecost Sermon: A Limitation on Who May Minister. . . ?” by Pheme Perkins in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration‘
  • “The Ministry of Women in the Apostolic Generation” by Adela Yarbro Collins in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration‘
  • “Changing Forms of ministry in the Early Church” by Hamilton Hess in ‘Sexism & Church Law: Equal Rights and Affirmative Action‘
  • “Trajectories beyond the New Testament Era” by Ben Witherington in ‘Women in the Earliest Churches‘
  • “Episkopê and Episkopos: the New Testament Evidence” by Raymond Brown in ‘Theological Studies‘ 41 (1980) pp. 322-338
  • Biblical Affirmations of Woman – Feminine Imagery of God-Postbiblical Period by Leonard Swidler.

On Ephesians ‘Bride and Bridegroom’

• Omnis Analogia Claudet by Dorothy Irvin in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration’
• Bridegroom: A Biblical Symbol of Union, Not Separation by Carroll Stulhmueller in ‘Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration’

On Luke:

• “Women and the Third Evangelist” by Ben Witherington in ‘Women in the Earliest Churches’

On John:

• “Roles of Women in the Fourth Gospel” by Raymond Brown in ‘Theological Studies‘ 36 (1975) pp. 688-699

On Hebrews:

• The Book of the Hebrews Revisited: Implications of the Theology of Hebrews for Gender Equality by Ruth Hoppin